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I. Why Counterpoint?
II. What is Counterpoint?
III. The Study of Counterpoint
IV. General Descriptions of Each Species
V. Detailed Descriptions and Examples of Each
Species
First Species
Second Species
Third Species
Fourth Species
I. Why counterpoint? Why
use the species approach? These are valid questions to which there are
valid answers. Appendix 3 in the Gauldin text provides an introduction
to counterpoint in which some reasons for studying counterpoint are
discussed. However, one of the most important reasons for studying
counterpoint not mentioned is that it will increase your awareness
of:
1) How purely melodic events help shape musical procedures. Melodies
used in species counterpoint are aimed at excluding all aesthetic
goals save those that are purely melodic. Rhythmic, motivic and
textural interest, harmonic and polyphonic implications and dramatic
expressiveness are all excluded in favor of this goal. By so doing,
experience in counterpoint heightens one's awareness of how purely
melodic events contribute to and enhance musical structures.
2) How dissonance is used to create musical impetus and a natural
flow. Dissonance equals instability, and that creates the need to
"move on," in other words, a movement through time. However,
dissonance in tonal music must be used in such a way as to promote
coherence and "naturalness." Species counterpoint provides
the opportunity to learn these procedures without the complication of
other factors being present.
3) The nature of melodic embellishing events, passing tones, neighbor
notes and suspensions are isolated and focused on in a particular
species. In Counterpoint in Composition, a counterpoint text
by Salzer and Schacter, there is a wonderfully clear explanation of
melodic, dissonant embellishments:
All dissonances arise out of three fundamental types:
a) the dissonance created by motion (passing tone),
b) the dissonance caused by the ornamentation of a stationary tone
(neighboring note),
c) the dissonance produced by rhythmic displacement (suspension).
Dissonant passing tones materially further the sense
of directed motion...The tension of the dissonant passing tone creates
the expectation of continued motion to a new stable point...The
passing tone does not merely occur between the consonances, it
connects them. To ensure the closest possible connection between the
dissonance and the two consonances, the passing tone must be
approached and continued by step.
The neighboring tone arises out of a melodic impulse
very different from that which produces the passing tone. The passing
tone forms a stepwise connection between two different tones; the
neighboring note represents the stepwise decoration of a single
tone.
A clear understanding of these passages will go a long was toward
keeping your work in melodic embellishment (called
"figuration" in the text) free from confusion
and frustration.
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II. What is
Counterpoint? The basic goal of a counterpoint exercise is to
write two (or more) melodies that sound "good" together, yet
are distinctly different. The usual procedure is to have a given
melody, called the cantus firmus (or
c.f.) against which you are to write a counter
melody. The counter melody is called the
counterpoint. Although the cantus firmus, (or c.f).
is discussed in the text, the text, as an abbreviated introduction,
necessarily omits important information. The melodies of species
counterpoint have very specific characteristics. These can be revealed
by examining and describing the melody of a typical Cantus Firmus.
Here's a good example:
This model reveals that the c.f. should present one smoothly
contoured shape, be singable, be as interesting as possible within the
restrictions imposed, have a natural flow and be tonally stable. The
following directives contribute to these goals.
a) To give the impression of one shape, it has to be long enough to
give a feeling that something has begun, continued and ended. It also
has be short enough so that it can be perceived as one, continuous
melodic thrust or gesture. A melody of 8 to 14 notes generally
accomplishes these objectives.
b) To give a definite sense of shape, it should have a climax point,
generally a high note. To repeat this high note weakens the sense of
having one, definite shape.
c) If it's not easy to sing, it's wrong. What makes something
singable? Generally speaking, motion that is predominantly stepwise
and that flows. There is a saying, "stepwise motion is the
carrier of melodic activity."
d) Don't have two large leaps in a row, especially if one is a
fourth or larger, and especially if they move in the same direction.
Such a passage is very difficult to sing.
e) Have no leap larger than a minor 6th, and use that only rarely
(although you can use octave leaps.
f) In general, it sounds more natural to leap from a strong beat than
from a weak beat.
g) The contour of the melody should be interesting, with several
changes in direction. Exclusive stepwise motion is not interesting.
Motion in just one direction is not interesting. There must be at
least two leaps. The shape should have a sense of balance-leaps in one
direction are usually immediately balanced by motion in the opposite
direction, stepwise, if possible.
h) The melody should flow naturally within the tonal context.
Anything that contradicts this goal is wrong. For example, the notes
of a melodic augmented interval tend to want to resolve in opposite
directions, creating the effect of two voices (a compound melody).
This contradicts the goal of creating a melodic continuum, so use of
augmented intervals in a melody is forbidden. Continuing in the same
direction after a leap has the same effect, so this is to be avoided
also.
i) Every note should contribute as equally as possible to the contour
of the melody. Motivic patterns contradict that goal, because they
give a feeling of a group of notes repeating-and some notes of a
motive are always heard as embellishing others. So, do NOT use
repeated pitch patterns when writing species counterpoint.
j) If every note is going to have a chance to contribute equally,
they have to be of equal duration. Long notes tend to be heard as more
"important" than short tones. Therefore, except for 5th
species, each melody will for the most part use only one kind of note
value.
k) The melody should begin and end with a feeling of absolute tonal
stability. This is accomplished by beginning and ending the melody on
the tonic note. A feeling of finality or "closure" is
desired with the last note. A descent to the tonic through the
supertonic gives more of a feeling of closure than an ascent to the
tonic. Therefore, most c.f. melodies end with scale steps 2-1.
l) Below are some examples of c.f. that exhibit these
characteristics. Be able to sing any of these melodies without
hesitation. Note that all these cantus firmi are written in the alto
clef. You may wish to rewrite them in bass or treble clefs. You can
also transpose them to different key to better serve the voices you
are writing.
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III. The study
of counterpoint has been divided into five distinct kinds of
examples, called "species." Each species is designed to
allow a focus on a specific music factor. Before engaging in a
detailed discussion of these factors, a brief discussion of each
species is presented to give a sense of the overall scope of the study
of species counterpoint. Although counterpoint is done in two and
three voices, we will confine our work in this class to two-voice
exercises. In addition, although counterpoints are written both above
and below a given c.f., we will confine our work only to counterpoints
written above the cantus firmus. For all five species, the cantus
firmus melody is exclusively in whole notes. The second voice, the
counterpoint that you will compose, changes note
values with each species.
An overview of the five species
Each of the first four species has a distinct use of dissonant
harmonic intervals:
- In first species, no dissonant intervals are permitted, only
perfect and imperfect consonances are used.
- In second species, only passing tone dissonant intervals may be
used.
- In third species, neighbor notes and the neighbor group in addition
to passing
tone dissonant intervals may be used.
- In fourth species, only suspension dissonant intervals may be used.
Since fifth species is a combination of the above, no substantively
new kind of dissonance is introduced.
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IV. General descriptions of each species
The rhythmic values and dissonances permitted in each.
1. First species: the two voices, the c.f. and the
counterpoint move note against note (both using whole notes), using
only consonant harmonic intervals. This allows us to
gain familiarity with the relative musical effect of perfect and
imperfect consonance and learn Consult the chapter on
Overtones for an explanation of consonance and
dissonance.
2. Second species, in which the counterpoint moves in
half-notes against the whole notes of the c.f., allows us to gain an
awareness of the nature and melodic effect of passing
tones - the only kind of dissonance so far permitted.
3. Third species: the counterpoint moves in
quarter-notes against the whole notes of the c.f., allowing us to gain
an awareness of consonant and dissonant neighbor
notes, now allowed, along with passing
tones, as embellishing tones.
4. Fourth species: The counterpoint uses only
half-notes, and as many as possible are tied over the bar. Fourth
species focuses exclusively on suspensions.
5. Fifth species is a combination of all of the
above. In this species the use of rhythm as contributing element to
the aesthetic quality of the melody is added.
Relative motion. In two-voice counterpoint you are to
write melody that forms a two-voice texture with a given cantus
firmus. This allows us to become familiar with the four kinds of
relative motion between voices: contrary,
parallel, direct and
oblique. These motions can be described as
follows:
1) Parallel motion: Both voices move in the same direction and stay
the same
distance apart.
2) Contrary motion: the voices move in opposite direction (one up,
the other
down).
3) Direct (or similar) motion: the voices move in the same direction,
but they
don't stay the same distance apart (one voice may go up a second,
the other a
fourth).
4) Oblique motion: one voice moves while the other one doesn't
(it stays on the
same pitch).
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V. Detailed
descriptions and examples of each species
First Species
The procedures for creating a first species exercise are fairly
simple. Some of these directives for 1st species are repeated in the
appendix of the text.
1) The counterpoint uses whole notes, and must form only consonant
intervals with the cantus firmus. The counterpoint MUST have a
different pitch in each measure. Well, we'll relax that a bit and
permit one repeated pitch per exercise.
2) Beginning the exercise: For maximum
tonal stability, the exercise should begin with the stability of a
perfect consonance, the fifth or the octave. Although it's
possible to begin with a unison, it will create difficulties, since
most c.f. begin with an ascent-and this won't leave room enough
between the voices. Repeat! Begin only with a 5th or and
octave above the c.f. note.
3) Ending the exercise: For maximum
closure, the exercise will end with the stability of a unison or
octave. The next to last note will be the
leading-tone (a major 6th against the 2nd scale step of the c.f.)
Repeat! The last two notes of the c.f. will always be
"re-do". The last two note of the counterpoint
will always be "ti-do".
4) In the Course of the exercises: Avoid
having too many perfect consonances during the course of the exercise.
The stability of the perfect consonances will cripple the musical
flow. Instead, use as many imperfect consonances as possible (3rds and
6ths). The 3rds and 6ths can be major or minor, but never augmented or
diminished.
5) Parallel motion: parallel imperfect consonance
(parallel 3rds and 6ths) are good, but use no more than 3 in a row
(one voice will sound like an echo of the other and its independence
will be weakened).
6) Parallel perfect consonances are
forbidden. In fact, do not ever get TO a perfect consonance
by moving both voices in the same direction, EVER. If you have a
perfect octave or fifth, make sure have approached it only by contrary
or oblique motion. Repeat! If you use a perfect consonance, it
must be approached only by oblique or contrary motion.
7) The melody of the counterpoint must match the stylistic
characteristics of the c.f.
Second Species
1) In 2nd species, the counterpoint is written ONLY in half-notes,
except for the last measure (the exercise ends with whole notes in
both voices). However, you may also use a whole note in the
penultimate measure if necessary. Each successive note must be on a
different pitch. No exceptions.
2) As in 1st species, you must begin with a perfect consonance and
end with a unison or octave. The counterpoint can begin on either the
first or second beat of the first measure. The exercise must end with
either a unison or an octave. You may revert to 1st species (use a
whole-note) in the next-to-last measure.
3) You may use a dissonance in the course of the exercise, BUT!
4) If you use a dissonance
a. it MUST be a PASSING TONE - a passing tone is an embellishing note
approached and left stepwise in the same direction. In other words, it
fills in the interval of a melodic third;
b. the dissonant passing tone MUST be on the second half of the
measure, the "weak" beat - NEVER on the first or strong
beat!
5) The same principles governing the use of motion to perfect and
imperfect intervals are still in effect.
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Third Species
1) In 3rd species, the counterpoint is written ONLY in quarter-notes,
four notes to a measure, except, of course, for the last measure (the
exercise must end with whole notes in both voices). Each quarter-note
must be a different pitch-NO repeated notes.
2) Beginning: As in 1st species, you must begin with
a perfect consonance and end with a unison or octave. The exercise can
begin on either the first, second, third or fourth beats of the first
measure.
3) Ending: As usual, the exercise must end with a
unison or an octave. The next to last note of the counterpoint MUST be
the leading tone (as in 1st and 2nd species), and form a major sixth
with the penultimate note of the c.f. (the last two notes of the
counterpoint will be "ti-do".)
4) Dissonances: dissonances are allowed in the
course of the exercise, but must be either a passing tone or a
neighbor note, but NEVER on the downbeat.
5) Neighbor notes: a neighbor note motion is like visiting a
neighbor:
a) you start from home (a consonant tone)
b) go next door (step-wise up or down to a dissonant or consonant
embellishing tone), then
c) return home (the consonant tone you started from. This is a
complete neighbor note motion. If you do not start from home or do not
return home, it will be an incomplete neighbor note motion. In
counterpoint, only complete neighbor note motions are permitted.
6) A lower neighbor has the effect of creating ascending motion
immediately following the return to the main note. The upper neighbor
has the opposite effect. Experiment with this to see how it works,
then use these effects to create a natural flow in your melody.
7) Singing neighbor notes: Singing the neighbor note affords an
opportunity to take advantage of your natural musical instincts. If
you sing a neighbor note knowing that you are going to return
to "home" to the main note being embellished, you can (and
should!) retain the sense or memory of the pitch of the main tone even
while singing the neighbor. This can be a great help when trying to
sight sing, or even sight-read on your own instrument.
8) Additional dissonant use: the "double neighbor,
"neighbor group" or "changing tone." These names
are synonyms; they all refer to the same thing. In 3rd species we have
the first instance of dissonance that does not have an immediate,
visual stepwise relationship to a consonance. It is a pattern
involving upper and lower neighbor that omits the return to the main
tone in between the neighbors. Although there is a literal leap from a
dissonance in the notation, the ear hears both notes clearly as being
stepwise neighbors to the main tone. The pattern is called a double
neighbors or a neighbor groups. Page 79 in the Gauldin text offers a
discussion of this embellishment and also gives it yet another name,
the changing tone. The example below will make this embellishment
clear.
9) Avoid the tendency to create successive one-measure melodic
gestures that do not create a long-line flow.
10) It is much easier to create interesting melodic lines in 3rd
species than in either 1st or 2nd species, there are so many more
choices.
11) Procedure for 3rd species. A good way to write a 3rd species
exercise is to first write a well-constructed 1st species exercise,
then connect the first species note by filling in the spaces between
the downbeats with fluid, graceful non-sequential quarter-note
motion.
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Fourth Species
In Fourth species the counterpoint is written in half notes, as in 2nd
species. However, the half notes are tied over the bar as much as
possible. Fourth species is sometimes called "syncopes," and
it presents the opportunity to become familiar with suspensions-caused
by the tied notes over the bar. Suspensions are dissonances caused by
delaying the movement of one voice in a context where one consonant
interval moves to another consonant interval. Either the top or bottom
voice can delay its movement, but in this class we will only consider
delaying motion in the top voice. For example:
Two voices are a fifth apart: C - G. Each voice
moves a step toward each other, to the 3rd, D - F.
If the top voice delays its motion to the F
until after the bottom voice has moved to D,
a dissonant 4th ,D - G is created. That is the
essence of a suspension. It's that simple.
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Now to define that simple event. Much of the discussion that follows
parallels the text.
1) Suspensions are identified by the dissonant suspended interval and
its consonant resolution. Thus, the above example is called a "4
- 3" suspension.
2) A suspension has three parts:
a) the preparation (above, the C - G
intervals),
b) the dissonant suspension (the D - G 4th )
and
c) the resolution (the D - F 3rd).
3) Since the original context involved two voices in 1st species, the
preparation and the resolution (what you would be left with without
the delayed motion) MUST be consonant.
4) Avoid situations in which the 1st species original context (without
the suspension) would arrive at perfect consonance with direct or
parallel motion.
5) Most suspensions in common-practice music resolve stepwise down to
a consonance, but some resolve up. In species counterpoint
ALL resolutions must be stepwise and
down. You cannot do anything with a dissonance suspension
except resolve it STEPWISE, DOWN to a CONSONANCE.
6) The delay always happens where you expect the
note to move. That is ALWAYS on the beat, or in simple counterpoint,
on the downbeat beat of the measure. Repeat: THE SUSPENSION WILL
ALWAYS HAPPEN ON THE DOWNBEAT.
7) This means that both the preparation and resolution will be in a
rhythmically weaker place. In species counterpoint, they will always
be found on the second half of the measure, the weak beat.
8) When doing a fourth species exercise:
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a) use as many tied half-notes as possible.
b) Consonant suspensions are allowed, and although they can
resolve down, they do not have to move stepwise down, you are free
to treat it as any other 2nd species consonant note.
c) You may temporarily revert to 2nd species if a tied note is
impossible.
d) The possible dissonant suspensions are:
e) Beginning: start, as usual, with a P5 or P8, but
on 2nd beat of 1st bar.
f) Ending: ALWAYS end with a 7-6 suspension in the
next to last measure, immediately before the final octave of the last
measure. This will enable you to end with the usual
"ti-do" as the last two notes of the
counterpoint.
g) Since the movement of the melody is restricted by the need to
resolve down, and the dissonant suspension tends to call attention to
itself at the expense of the melodic flow, the need to create an
interesting melodic is much less important in this species.
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