PEHL 557
Class Notes
Presenting the Problem
Student Learning Outcomes
At the completion of this unit of instruction students will be able to:
Format of a Thesis or Dissertation
Q. What is the format of a typical thesis? (the five chapters)
A. Intro, review of lit, methods, results, discussion/conclusion)
Can be exceptions. Why? To suit a particular need. For example, my Ph.D. thesis was 12 chapters.
Some variation possible in format. Dr. Nethery for example, follows different format to the typical but probably is the common format for those in exercise physiology.
Typical first chapter of a study includes the following elements:
TITLE
ABSTRACT
VITA
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM STATEMENT
HYPOTHESIS
DEFINITIONS
ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS
SIGNIFICANCE
Titles
First aspect is, Title. Study the following titles:
"[A CROSS-NATIONAL COMPARISON OF] SEX-TYPING AND [SELECTED] PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN COLLEGIATE FOOTBALL PLAYERS AND ENGLISH SOCCER PLAYERS."
"AN INVESTIGATION TO DETERMINE THE DRUG EFFECTS OF COCAINE AND LSD ON THE INCIDENCE OF BIRTH RATE DEFECTS AMONG AMERICAN WOMEN FROM THE SOUTH SIDE OF CHICAGO AGED 20-30."
"A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOR OF GRADUATE STUDENTS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, AND LEISURE SERVICES FOLLOWING THE RECENT INGESTION OF LARGE QUANTITIES OF ALCOHOL BETWEEN THE HOURS OF 9:00 PM AND 10:00 PM ON TUESDAY EVENINGS DURING WINTER QUARTER."
Q. What do you notice in general about these examples?
A. They are long.
Used to be long and wordy but now we try to be more concise
Q. You can see how we may be able to shorten title#1. How might you shorten title#2? Write it down then edit.
Do not want to omit key information.
Don't get hung up on the title - can edit later
Q. What information typically follows the title?
A. Abstract, vita, acknowledgment, contents, list of tables, introduction, statement of the problem. You should be able to explain these parts.
Introductions to Studies
Q. Introduction is a key part of the study. What reasons can you give for its importance?
A. Like the beginning of a book. Helps you to decide whether to read on or quit. Gets quickly to the heart of the matter.
Danger of trying to show off your knowledge and confusing the reader.
Example: Consider a study in which researcher is interested in the influence of the family of children's sport participation. The author began by discussing changes in society, changes in the structure and role of the family, importance of sport, changes in the structure of sport etc. Eventually he discusses the family role in sport but by then the reader had been exposed to so many ideas that the theme had been lost.
Introduction should be your best writing. The reader should be engrossed in the topic and have a good idea of what you are proposing to examine by the end. But if it's still not entirely clear the next part will clear up any confusion.
Statement of the Problem
Q. What is the next part - to follow the introduction?
A. Statement of the Problem
Similar to your hypotheses, this rather brief paragraph should clarify your goals in the study. See below:
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
-CLEARLY IDENTIFY-
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
CATEGORICAL VARIABLES
CONTROL VARIABLES
Q. Your variables should be evident. What variables might we expect to see?
A. IV, DV, CATV, CONV (check understanding - is IV the cause or the effect?)
Q. What is a CATV? Examples?
A. Type of IV that can be studied but not manipulated. Age, sex, race, etc.
Q. Write down a problem statement that has a CATV
A. Discuss
Q. What is a CONV? Examples?
A. A variable that is controlled because of possible influence but not studied. E.g. Age
Q. What is the relationship between CATVs and CONVs?
A. A CONV can become a CATV if the differences are studied. so now change the example you just wrote to make your CATV into a CONV. Discuss.
Q. Extraneous variables are a problem in all research. What are they?
A. Factors that can't be controlled but which may affect results of the study. E.g. maturation, diet, attitude. Usually discussed in light of the findings.
Here's some more practice: Identify the various types of variables
1. COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF COCAINE AND ALCOHOL ON THE MEMORY OF HIGH SCHOOL MALES AND FEMALES.
2. EFFECT OF LEADERSHIP STYLES ON THE JOB SATISFACTION OF PARK AND RECREATION STAFF IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON.
3. NOW ADD A CATEGORICAL VARIABLE TO #2.
Hypotheses
Q. Hypotheses are next made clear. Remind me of the two types. What is the research hypothesis? What is the null hypothesis?
A. The anticipated result in a testable format and the anticipation that there will be no differences discovered as a result of testing.
Q. Many of you already have research topics in mind. Be prepared to share with us your research hypothesis.
Q. Why do researchers include the null hypothesis. What role does it play in the study?
A. It is the foundation of statistical analysis. Statistics are designed to evaluate the null hypothesis. States no differences will be found except by chance.
Definitions
Q. Operational definitions must also be given. Why might they be important? Do we define unknown terms like "isokinetic" or well known terms like "strength?"
A. Often both need definitions. Strength, fatigue, stress, enjoyment, pleasure, aggression, motivation, participation are all well known terms but each of us has different interpretation. Must define exactly how the term is being used. Would not be good to compare two studies on strength gains and later learn the first researcher use the bench press and the other used push ups.
However, do not define every term. Just be clear.
Assumptions
Q. Basic assumptions are also often included in this first chapter. Think of a study and give some examples of what might be your basic assumptions
A. method of assessment is valid and reliable, behaviors can indeed be observed, people will answer your questions honestly, any assistants administered the experiment in the same way
Limitations
Q. We want to minimize any conditions that might affect the study in ways not being tested. Techniques we use include: random sampling, pretraining of assistants, pilot studies, using established tests. Explain these.
Delimitations are the limits a researcher places on the study.
Q. Example?
A. Delimiting the study to college students, males, children, rats etc.
Limitations are influences that the researcher can not control. Perhaps you can't meet with subjects but have to rely on written responses, have to use a translator because you have Hispanic subjects, only have the basic "wingdinger" device rather than the more accurate "superwingdinger."
By delimiting the study you are also placing limits
All studies have imperfections - they can't be avoided but they can be minimized. Researcher's goal is to be honest so that we understand the problems you faced and can perhaps think up ways to overcome them.
Significance of the Study
Q. Significance of the study often concludes the introduction. Also sometimes referred to as the Need for the Study. Explain?
A. You will be asked this many times and should be prepared to defend your ideas. If your study was a type of basic research it should relate to the development of theory. In applied studies you should be able to relate your work to solving practical problems.
Should relate to the intro not raise new questions. Intro might discuss the area of interest noting problems. In this section you will specifically state the problems you intend to resolve. Can mention (briefly) contradictory findings.
(Revised 12/15/01)